Processes Involved In The Production Of Precipitation Biology Essay

Processes Involved In The Production Of Precipitation Biology Essay Precipitation is one of the most important factors in the water cycle, which all life forms on Earth revolve around. However without the essential conditions and processes occurring, precipitation would not be possible. Introduction Precipitation results when cloud particles become too heavy therefore they fall to the Earths surface as water that comes either in solid (Hail, ice-pellets, snow, diamond dust, sleet and snow grains) or liquid form (Rain, freezing rain and drizzle), falling from the atmosphere towards the Earths surface. In order for precipitation to occur, cloud formation is an essential process. Discussion Cloud formation Figure 1 Cloud formation Sourced from: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/ Clouds form from the process of condensation due to adiabatic processes. Unstable conditions result in an air parcel rising until it cools at dew-point temperature, therefore becoming saturated. A decrease in atmospheric pressure results in the expansion of air molecules in the parcel, therefore this causes a decrease in temperature. This process is known as adiabatic cooling and has a constant lapse rate of 10Co per 1000 metres. However air sinking down the atmosphere increases in temperature due to being compressed by the constant increase in air pressure, which is known as adiabatic heating. Further cooling results from the air parcel being lifted, thus condensation of water vapour occurs. The presence of cloud condensation nuclei is mandatory for water to condense amongst molecules of air. To summarise, cloud formation occurs based on the conditions of saturated air, cooling mechanisms and lastly the presence of cloud condensation nuclei. http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/~wintelsw/MET1010LOL/chapter06/adiabatic01.jpg Precipitation processes The form undertaken by precipitation depends mainly on the formation method and the present temperature during the formation. Two of the main theories accepted as being principally responsible for the formation of the precipitation particles are the Collision-coalescence process and the Bergeron/ ice crystal process. Collision coalescence process: A theory for warmer clouds in low latitudes, it states that as water droplets are cohesive, upon colliding with one another, they merge. Evidence for this theory has been seen in warmer sections of clouds where moisture exist solely in liquid state, with larger droplets overtaking smaller droplets whilst falling due to their less buoyant state, and merging with them to form a larger droplet. (See Figure 1) The increased mass of the droplets defy the updrafts of clouds and begin their descent to Earths surface. http://san.hufs.ac.kr/~gwlee/session8/images/collision.gif Bergeron/Ice crystal process: Figure 2: Collision-coalescence process Sourced from: http:/ san.hufs.ac.krProposed in the 1920s by Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron, the theory states that due to the lowered saturated pressure of the ice-crystal, as compared to the water vapour, this results in the ice-crystal growing larger in size as surrounding water vapour evaporates. Once the ice crystals are large enough to fall, they pass through the warm, lower portion of clouds where they absorb more moisture therefore increasing yet again in size. (Figure 2) The ice-crystals will then either melt and precipitate as rain or precipitate from the clouds as snowflakes. Figure 3: The Bergeron Process- Sourced from: http://geography.hunter.cuny.eduhttp://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~tbw/wc.notes/5.cond.precip/precipitation/bergeron.process.jpg The forms of precipitation depend mainly on the air temperature and turbulences. The major forms of precipitation include Rain, Snow, Sleet (Also known as freezing rain) and hail. Rain The most common form of precipitate, it consists of droplets of liquid water. Though their sizes vary, droplets are usually between 2-5mm in diameter. Rain droplets may reduce in size and distance between each other as a result of the temperature of the air mass being slightly less than the dew point. This then is known as Drizzle. Snow The second most common form of precipitate, snow occurs when water vapour freezes directly prior to passing through sublimation, thereby forming tiny crystals around the freezing nuclei as seen in the Bergeron process. http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/winter/images/snow.jpg Figure 4- Snow formation Sourced from: http://nssl.noaa.gov(Figure 4) Sleet Rain falling down to Earth gets passed through a reasonably thick layer of cold air near Earths surface therefore freezing. (Figure 5) Glaze Figure 5- Temperature differences with precipitation forms Sourced from: http://uiuc.edu/ forestry/publications/pdf/ urban_community_forestry/ trees_and_ice_storms_2006.pdfWhile Sleet is formed by raindrops freezing during descent, Glaze is formed the instant raindrops collide with a solid object. Hail A lesser-common precipitate, the formation of hail begins with the lifting of ice-crystals caused by strong updrafts in a cumulonimbus cloud. (Figure 6) Cooled by circulating inside the cloud, the water droplets attach together, forming layers. http://www.jamesspann.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/SevereWx6.jpg Figure 6-Hail formation Sourced from: NC State University (http://hatteras.meas.ncsu.edu/secc_edu/SevereWeather/body) A less common form of precipitate is: Diamond dust/ ice crystal A meteorological phenomenon, diamond dust is also known as a form of clear-sky precipitation as it forms under relatively clear skies. Atmospheric Lifting Atmospheric lifting plays a major role the formation of precipitation as mentioned above. http://geospatial.gsu.edu/geog1112/files/Lab5/Convection.jpg Convective Lifting Figure 7- Convective lifting Sourced from: Pearson prentice hall Inc. 2007/As different surface areas have various temperatures due to unequal heating, conduction causes the air parcel to be warmer than surrounding air (Figure 7). Heated air expands as its density decreases; therefore the air parcel rises towards the lower-density layer. As the air continues to rise, this results in the pressure of the unstable air decreasing. Thus the air cools adiabatically until the dew point temperature has been reached. Precipitation that forms from convective lifting, convective precipitation, is common in warmer regions of the globe and is observed to be light showers with large raindrops. However convective precipitation usually last for short durations at a time. http://media-1.web.britannica.com/eb-media/51/135451-004-A6B6636B.jpg Orographic Lifting Figure 8 Orographic lifting Sourced from: http://britannica.comAscending air is forced upwards a land mass, usually due to a topographic barrier, where it cools adiabatically to dew point temperature and then condenses. When air stars to descend downhill, condensation and precipitation come to a halt as the air starts to warms adiabatically. Windward slope of the barrier is termed the wet side whereas the leeward slope is the dry side. The rain shadow area is considered to be from the dry side to the extent of the drying influence. Orographic precipitation is common in New Zealand due to the presence of many hills and mountain ranges in the landscape. Frontal lifting This type of lifting occurs due to a front, which is defined by Whittow (2000) as being the boundary plane between two air masses with different meteorological characteristics. The warmer air mass is forced to rise over the cold air mass, thereby cooling to dew point temperature. This then allows for the formation of clouds and the resulting frontal precipitation. http://ocw.usu.edu/forest__range__and_wildlife_sciences/wildland_fire_management_and_planning/lifting3.jpg Figure 9- Frontal Lifting Sourced from: Idaho University http://www.sci.uidaho.edu Convergent Lifting Figure 10- Convergent lifting Sourced from: Idaho University http://www.sci.uidaho.eduThe least common type of atmospheric lifting, it occurs with air converging thus, uplift is formed due to crowding. Instability is then increased therefore producing showery-type precipitation. Convergent lifting is linked to cyclonic storms and is far more common in lower latitudes, as well as the intertropical convergence zone, where tropical disturbances such as hurricanes are caused by it. http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/scripter/geog100/lect/05-atmos-water-wx/05-part-7-atmos-lifting-fronts/05-25a-lifting-convergent.jpg Global distribution The amount of precipitation received in any region on Earths surface depends on the characteristics of the air mass involved, such as humidity, temperature and stability which are also dependent on the originating latitudes and the trajectory of the air mass. Figure 11- Total annual rainfall sourced from: climate-charts  © www.climate-charts.comWorldwide annual precipitation http://www.climate-charts.com/images/world-rainfall-map.png Tropical latitudes are considered to contain most of the wettest regions in the globe. This may be due to the large moisture carrying capacity of the warm easterly trade winds, hence why very heavy rainfall is often produced in those areas. Regions near the equator exhibit these circumstances, as warm and unstable air gets lifted by within the intertropical convergence zone, as the warmer ocean waters easily vaporizes. Large amounts of precipitations also form due to topographic obstacles forcing trade winds to rise. The orographic effect is exhibited in the eastern regions of tropical landmasses, such as Madagascar and N.E South America, due to the trade winds coming from the easterly direction. Drier areas are more common on the western side of continents in subtropical latitudes (20o and 30o centred ) High pressure areas, where air sinks which does not promote condensation or precipitation, are common at the latitudes mentioned above which are closer to subtropical high-pressure cells. The contrast between the precipitation received in coastal regions and interior regions of continents are also quite visible. (Figure 8) Coastal regions are able to receive a higher amount of precipitation due to being geographically closer to sources of moisture, such as oceans. Conclusion In order for precipitation to be formed, numerous conditions and processes have to be met. Adiabatic processes are key in cloud formation, which is essential for precipitation. The two main theories currently accepted as principally responsible for producing precipitation particles are the Bergeron/Ice-crystal process and the Collision-coalescence process. Forms of precipitation that arise from the processes above include, Rain, which is the most common form; Snow, Sleet, Glaze and Hail. A lesser common form is Diamond dust/Ice crystals which are known as a meteorological phenomenon. Only through the processes of atmospheric lifting can precipitation occur. The four main principle types of atmospheric lifting include Convective lifting, which is due to unequal heating on the surface; Orographic lifting, which is caused by a topographic barrier; Frontal lifting, due to fronts; and lastly convergent lifting, the least common, occurring when air converges. The distribution of precipitation varies greatly around the globe, depending however, on the characteristics of the air mass involved, such as humidity, temperature and stability which are also dependent on the originating latitudes and the trajectory of the air mass. Tropical latitudes receive the most amounts due to the moisture carrying capacity of the trade winds which also cause an orographic effect observed near the eastern regions of tropical landmasses, due to their easterly direction.

Hamlet as Antihero in Shakespeares Hamlet :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

Hamlet as Antihero      Ã‚  Ã‚  By literary definition, an antihero is the "hero" of the play or novel, but has negative attributes that separate him or her from the classic hero such as Superman. Such negative aspects may include a violent nature, use of coarse language, or self-serving interests which may inadvertently depict the protagonist as a hero since the result of serving those interests may be the betterment of society or an environment. In William Shakespeare's Hamlet, the protagonist, Hamlet, is depicted as an antihero.    One factor contributing to Hamlet’s status as antihero is that he draws sympathy, as well as admiration, from the reader since Hamlet feels the pain of losing his father along with the burden and obstacles in avenging his murder.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Act four places a special emphasis on Hamlet's intelligence. In scene two, Hamlet is very insolent and rude towards Rosencrantz and Guildenstern with such phrases as,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "That I can keep your counsel and not, mine own. Beside, to be demanded of a sponge, what replication should be made by the son of a king" (IV, ii, 12-14)? The reference to the sponge reflects the fact that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are easily ordered by the king and do not have minds of their own. Hamlet does not like Rosencrantz and Guildenstern since they are servants of the Claudius, Hamlet's mortal enemy. The reader does not like Rosencrantz and Guildenstern either which causes the reader to side with Hamlet.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another incident of Hamlet's high intelligence is shown when he Hamlet tells Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, "I am glad of it: a knavish sleeps in a foolish ear" (IV, i, 24-25).   This statement leaves Rosencrantz and Guildenstern more or less confused.    Hamlet is clearly more clever than the two of them combined and is able to toy with them. Hamlet has an excellent command of the language and because of it, can use words to the point that those around him will not understand and may label him as crazy.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hamlet shows another example of his cleverness, this time towards Claudius, when he says, "I see a cherub that sees them. But, come; for England! Farewell, dear mother" (IV, iii, 49-50). The cherub, or the angel, gives Hamlet a sense of superiority over Claudius. Having an angel at one's side would be a definite sign of power, which is exactly what Hamlet tries to maintain over Claudius in their constant power struggle.

Pepsi & Coke: Related to Game Theory Essay

In May, 1886, Coca Cola was introduced by John Pemberton a pharmacist from Atlanta, Georgia. John Pemberton started brewing his coca cola formula in a three legged brass kettle in his backyard. Pharmacists Caleb Bradham in New Bern, North Carolina first made competitor Pepsi in the 1890’s. The brand was trademarked on June 16, 1903. These companies have brand identification and customer loyalties that have made them a historical landmark. Today Pepsi and Coke control around 90% of the soft drink market, making it one of the most well known oligopolies in the U.  S. An oligopoly is a market dominated by so few sellers that an action by any of them will impact both the price of the good and the competitors. Some characteristics of an oligopoly are: * The dominant firms have significant barriers to entry; or exit is difficult. * Access to information is limited * The dominant firms have significant market power; they set their own price. * The product may be homogenous or differentiated. * A few large firms dominate the market, i. e. they have a substantial market share. There is a mutual interdependence among the dominant firms; this means that competition is personal and each firm recognizes that it’s actions affects the rival firms and theirs affects it. Economies of scale deter entry by forcing the entrant to come in at a large scale and risk strong reaction from existing firms or come in at a small scale and accept a cost disadvantage. Barriers to entry are high in the soft drink industry because both soft drink companies and bottlers are factors in entering this market. These two parts of the industry are extremely interdependent, sharing costs in procurement, production, marketing and distribution. Many of their functions overlap; for instance, Pepsi can do some bottling, and bottlers conduct many promotional activities. The industry is already vertically integrated to some extent. They also deal with similar suppliers and buyers. Entry into the industry would involve developing operations in either or both market segments. Beverage substitutes would threaten both Peps and their associated bottlers. Because of operational overlap and similarities in their market environment, we can include Pepsi, Coke and bottlers in our definition of the soft drink industry. This industry as a whole generates positive economic profits. Pepsi and Coca-Cola are dominant firms in this market, controlling approximately 90% of the market share. There is also a mutual interdependence among the dominant firms, so for every change Pepsi makes in marketing strategies, price increase and/or brand expansion, Coke is affected by it. Figure 1 shows the demand curve. The point of the kink is the point of the established market price. The kink of the demand curve suggests that a competitor would react asymmetrically to price increases and price decreases by the firm. Taking a look at the soft drink market, where Pepsi and Coke combined have over 90% of the market share. Suppose the price is established at $1. 99 for a six-pack of either Pepsi or Coke. Let’s consider the demand curve for Pepsi. If Pepsi increases its price to $2. 49 per six-pack, it will lose some of its market to Coke along the AB component of the demand curve in Fig. 1. Pepsi will be able to sell 500 six-packs a day instead of the original sales level of 1000. Coke is likely to stay at $1. 99 and enjoy the additional sale, as some people who were originally buying Pepsi will be switching to Coke. Figure [ 1 ] If Pepsi lowers its price to $1. 49 to gain an advantage over Coke and increase it sales to 1500 six-packs, it may not succeed. The increase in sales by Pepsi to 1500 can only happen if Coke did not react to Pepsi’s price cut. However, Coke is likely to match the price reduction by Pepsi to protect itself against loss of market share. As the result of price cuts by both Pepsi and Coke, there will be an increase in sales by both, at least partially at the expense of smaller competitors. In our example, the sales of Pepsi increase to 1300 six-packs per day from the original 1000. This is along the BC segment of the demand curve. Therefore, there are two demand curves facing Pepsi, AB for price increases and no reaction by Coke, and BC for price decreases and price matching reaction by Coke. This explains the kinked demand curve for Pepsi and similarly for Coke. Notice that the kink in the demand curve is at the established market price. It is also important to realize that the established price tends to be maintained. Neither Pepsi nor Coke will be inclined to raise their price since it would cause loss of sales and market share to the rival. Also neither of them is particularly interested in lowering the price and starting a price war since the outcome is loss of profit for both in favor of consumers. Figure 2 shows us profit maximization under an oligopoly. If we add to the demand MR model the cost curves for a firm such as Coke and Pepsi under oligopoly, we would be able to determine the profit maximization level of output. Figure [ 2 ] The profit maximizing level of output is 1000 six-packs of Pepsi, where MC = MR. Pepsi can sell this quantity at $1. 99 according to the demand curve. The average total cost of production at 1000 level of output is $0. 99 per six-pack. Therefore the company is making $1000 a day of excess profit as illustrated in figure 2. Moderate changes in the cost conditions of oligopolies do not cause a change in their profit maximization quantity and price as long as they are in the vertical range of the MR curve. This implies that technological improvements that lower the cost of production or change in the price of inputs encountered by an oligopoly would not lead to a quantity or price change. Therefore it’s suggested that under an oligopoly market prices are rigid. Firms especially avoid lowering their price from fear of igniting a price war. Instead oligopolies resort to non-price competition such as advertising. Price wars can and occasionally do occur when one of the dominant firms in the oligopoly market experiences a significant decrease in its production cost and attempts to increase its market share.

Essay on The Effects of Deforestation of the Amazon...

Today, the total percentage of forest cover of the earth is approximately thirty percent (â€Å"Deforestation†). That is about nine percent of the world’s total surface. The largest rainforest is the Amazon River Basin, located in South America. The Amazon is home to many species of animals, insects, plants and trees. Many of the trees and plants in the Amazon produce about twenty percent of the oxygen on earth, and absorb carbon. However, the Amazon is decreasing in size every day due to the ongoing deforestation of the land. Deforestation is when the forest of the land are cleared or destroyed, in order to be used for other actions (â€Å"Deforestation†). The Amazon is twenty percent less than it was about forty years ago (Wallace). In just about†¦show more content†¦As parts to of the world still continue to commit acts of deforestation in the rainforest areas, at the same time, the climate on earth also becomes affected by these actions, too. The tre es in the rainforest are essential to the water cycle (Szalay). The water cycle is the movement of water on the earth (â€Å"Summary of the Water Cycle†). The trees in the water cycle act in the process of evapotranspiration. The word evapotranspiration is evaporation and transpiration together (Briney). Evaporation is when water converts from liquid into a gas or vapor (Briney). Transpiration, however, is when a plant or tree absorbs the water from their roots and is evaporated back into the atmosphere through its leaves, stems, or flowers (Briney). The water evaporated from the trees and plants contribute to the rainfall in the forest (Briney). In the article The Effects of Deforestation in Amazonia, author Harald Sioli states, â€Å"With the reduction of rainwater re-evaporating from the original forest, the rate of its recycling will also diminish† (200). If the process of evapotranspiration decreases due to deforestation, the amount of rainfall will also decrease. 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